Articles

<b>Introduction</b><b>:</b><b> </b>College education is typically associated with the ability to work in less physically demanding occupations, allowing for a later retirement age. However, research indicates that highly educated Black individuals often work in more demanding occupations, which affects their retirement age.<b> </b><b>Aim</b><b>: </b>Building on the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) literature, we tested whether the benefit of college education on delaying the time of retirement is weaker for Black compared to White middle-aged and older adults.<b> </b><b>Methods</b><b>: </b>We utilized data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), which includes a 30-year longitudinal follow-up of a nationally representative sample of middle-aged and older adults in the United States. Education levels at baseline were categorized as less than college graduate (some high school, GED, high school diploma, or some college) and college graduate. The outcome was the time to retirement, measured from wave 2 to wave 15 (baseline to 30 years later). We graphed survival curves and used independent samples t-tests to assess associations between college graduation and time of retirement, overall and by race. <b>Results</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Our analysis included 6,803 White and Black participants who were employed at baseline and followed for up to 30 years. Overall, there was a positive association between college graduation and retirement timing, with individuals with higher education retiring later. However, we found significant racial differences in the retirement age of college graduates, indicating notable racial disparities in the effects of college graduation on retirement timing, disadvantaging Black college-educated individuals. Specifically, among Whites, but not Blacks, college education was associated with later retirement.<b> </b><b>Conclusion</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Consistent with Minorities’ Diminished Returns theory, the positive effect of college education on retirement timing are weaker for Black than for White middle-aged and older Americans. To address racial disparities, it is insufficient to focus solely on economic disparities. While closing the educational gap is important, we must also work to equalize labor market experiences for Black and White individuals with similar educational credentials. Structural factors contributing to the diminished returns of college education for Black populations must be addressed to effectively close racial disparities.

The Internationalization of higher education has plummeted since the 2010 tightening of migration policies. This study aims to examine the retention and graduation rates of international students at Northern Arizona University (NAU). Using a quantitative analysis approach, the study utilized secondary data from the Center for International Admission and Recruitment Office at NAU to examine the university’s recruitment, graduation, and retention strategies. The aim was to evaluate the impact of internationalization strategies on application and enrolment numbers. The study sample consisted over 2000 international students from fourteen countries, including China, India, Vietnam, Kuwait, Nepal, Ghana, Nigeria, United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, Canada, Mexico, France, and Iran in four cultural groups (Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America). A random sampling technique was used to select these countries partly because of their highest applications, enrolment numbers, as well as their adoption of recruitment strategies like those used by higher education institutions in the United States. A descriptive graphic representation, focusing on full-time undergraduate students during fall semesters, specifically freshmen international students, is illustrated. To facilitate a cross-country comparison of international students, this study presents an analysis of retention and graduation data across different countries spanning the past five years, from 2016 to 2020.