In the last few decades, there has been an increase in global awareness of human nutritional habits, with a significant interest in natural and healthier foods [ 1]. In addition to their nutritional value, plants and their components (stems, leaves, roots, flowers, and fruits) are also being investigated for their potential beneficial effects on human well-being. This is thought to be due to the presence of bioactive compounds [ 2,3].

The cactus Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., commonly referred to as prickly pear, cactus pear, or Indian fig tree, represents the most economically significant cactus crop [ 4]. The plant is cultivated primarily for its highly nutritious fruits, which are commonly referred to as "tunas" [ 5]. Opuntia ficus-indica is the most widespread within the Cactaceae family. The species demonstrates a high degree of adaptability to diverse climatic conditions. Its principal cultivation regions encompass the Mediterranean Basin, with a particular concentration in North Africa and Italy [ 7].

The species is distinguished by an aerial structure comprising cladodes, or paddles (Figure 1a), which serve to support the plant and store water. Additionally, they are a rich source of bioactive compounds with health-promoting properties, as evidenced by previous studies [ 8,9].

From an environmental point of view, cactus cladodes are an effective tool in the fight against desertification, erosion and soil problems [ 10,11,12]. The plant parts are fleshy, which enables them to tolerate prolonged drought conditions [ 13,14]. Additionally, the plant produces fleshy spinescent fruits, commonly known as cactus pear or prickly pear fruits (PPFs) (Figure 1b), which are typically consumed as fresh seasonal fruit [ 15].

Cacti employ a distinctive metabolic pathway, known as Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), to fix carbon dioxide. This process enables them to achieve a conversion efficiency of four to five times greater than that observed in C-4 plants [ 16]. Of note is the crop species O. ficus-indica, which plays a significant role in modern ethnobotanical culture [ 6].

In recent years, the cladodes of O. ficus-indica have garnered increasing attention for their ecological, environmental, and socio-economic benefits. Due to their rich composition, including water (88-95%), proteins (4-10 g/100 g of dry matter), lipids (1-4 g/100 g of dry matter), carbohydrates (64-71 g/100 g of dry matter), and fibers (around 18 g/100 g of dry matter) [ 17], as well as minerals and vitamins [ 18], they are considered a promising raw material for animal feed. Additionally, they are used in the production of renewable fuels and chemicals for industrial, food, medical, and cosmetic applications [ 19,20].

The present study represents a comparative ethnobotanical review of the different uses of O. ficus-indica in the Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) and Italy.

To collate the data, a comprehensive literature review was conducted on the O. ficus-indica plant and its ethnobotanical applications across the primary online research platforms, namely Scopus and Google Scholar. The search was carried out by entering ‘Opuntia ficus-indica’ AND ‘ethnobotany’ on the search platforms. All ethnobotanical articles that included the use of O. ficus-indica were considered. The scientific articles and books available for consideration included those that documented traditional ethnobotanical uses of O. ficus-indica, encompassing all potential applications, including food, medicine, and agropastoral practices. For North Africa, 24 bibliographic sources were selected, while for Italy, 50 bibliographic sources were selected.

Once the bibliographic sources had been selected, data were gathered on the local dialect name, the type of use, the plant used and the method of utilization, where applicable.

A total of 24 articles talking about ethnobotanical uses on O. ficus-indica in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria were selected. Historical records indicate that the cactus pear was introduced to North Africa by the Spanish during the 16th century [ 21]. The area assigned to this species is currently in continuous expansion in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, with the total area exceeding 30,000, 120,000, and 600,000 hectares, respectively [ 22].

In northern Algeria, the entire plant is utilized as a fence around houses and towns, with the fruits produced by the same fence plants are destined for human consumption. In contrast, in the south, the cladodes are used to feed small animals [ 7].

In Morocco, a considerable proportion of the fruit is processed into a variety of products, including jam, vinegar, flour and seed oil. In Tunisia, the production of fruits of O. ficus-indica is more intensive than in other countries of the Maghreb. The processed products are employed in both the agri-food and cosmetic industries. Furthermore, the plants have been applied in the control of erosion [ 22].

The coexistence of both Arabian and Berber cultures in Maghreb countries leads to the diversification of local languages and dialects and, consequently, to the diversification of names given to different crops. Opuntia ficus-indica has different common names, even in the same country. In Algeria, a single name, "El Hendi", was identified [ 23]. In Morocco, multiple local designations for O. ficus-indica have been documented, including Sabbar, Handiya, Karmouss n'sara [ 24], Nawwar and Al'Handiyya [ 25].

The fruits and other parts of this species have been employed in traditional medicine for a variety of purposes in numerous countries [ 26].

In Algeria, the fruit is used raw or in decoctions for the treatment of digestive disorders and is held in high regard for its anti-diarrheal effect [ 23,27,28]. Additionally, it is employed in the manufacture of hair care products [ 23,29].

In a previous study, Sarri et al. [ 23] demonstrated the antidiabetic effect of the flower. Other significant applications include the preparation of infusions and decoctions with Opuntia cladodes and flowers for the treatment of intestinal inflammation and cystitis [ 30,31,32,33].

Additionally, the mucilage present in the cladodes is employed as an ointment for the treatment of dermatological conditions [ 32].

In addition to the medicinal applications, no food-related uses were identified in this region.Table 1 presents a comprehensive overview of the various applications of O. ficus-indica in Algeria.

In Morocco, O. ficus-indica has a long history of use in traditional medicine. As documented by Bellakhdar et al. [ 33], the flowers are employed for their diuretic and antibiotic effects, and they are utilized in infusions to treat uterine, kidney, and bladder infections. The same applications were documented by Fatiha et al. [ 34], additionally confirmed the utilization of the entire plant in the treatment of genitourinary disorders. In a further investigation, Merzouki et al. [ 25] identified additional effects, namely antidiarrheal and calefacient properties (a sensation of warmth). Furthermore, dried and ground flowers (flower powder) have been employed in the treatment of gastric discomfort [ 24,35,36,37,38]. The fruits and flowers have been taken in decoctions, powders, and infusions (for oral and external use), and have been reported to treat respiratory, skeletal, circulatory, and urinary problems [ 21,34,36,37]. In Morocco, O. ficus-indica has been employed in the treatment of diabetes mellitus [ 38,39,40,41]. As in Algeria, according to Lyoussi et al. [ 42], mucilage from the plant is rubbed on the skin to treat skin inflammation. However, there is less information on Tunisia than on other North African states. Nevertheless, some applications have been recorded regarding the use of decoctions with O. ficus-indica leaves to treat the kidneys and eliminate kidney stones [ 43,44,45,46].

In 2018, Mouhaddach et al. [ 47], conducted a more detailed study on the medicinal uses of different parts of the cactus, including cladodes, flowers, seeds, and roots. The cladodes have been demonstrated to possess analgesic and anticholesterolemic properties. They are cultivated through the process of drying and growing, and the resulting powder can be taken with water or milk to provide relief from a variety of aches and pains, including stomachaches, back pain, and leg pain. Additionally, the cladodes can be sliced and prepared in brine to reduce cholesterol levels. The mucilage derived from cladodes is employed in both medicinal and cosmetic applications. The application of a mixture of freshly collected cactus material, milk, and mucilage to the liver is believed to have a curative effect on liver diseases. Similarly, the topical application of this mixture to the hair is thought to result in a softer appearance. The flower powder decocted in water has been demonstrated to have therapeutic effects in the treatment of kidney and prostate diseases, as well as in the alleviation of leg and back aches. When mixed with honey, this powder has been shown to possess efficacy in the management of asthma and liver disease. Conversely, seed powder has been employed in the treatment of dermatological problems and cardiovascular disorders. Finally, dried and ground roots have been combined with honey or milk for the treatment of asthma.

A comprehensive overview of these applications is presented inTable 2.

A total of 50 bibliographic sources has been selected regarding the ethnobotanical uses od O. ficus-indica. Prickly pear cacti were introduced to Europe by the first Spanish colonists between the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century [ 48].

The commercially cultivated O. ficus-indica is grown for fruit production in Southern Italy, particularly on the island of Sicily, where over 4000 ha of specialized plantations yield 60000 t of fruit [ 49].

The introduction of O. ficus-indica has been met with considerable enthusiasm in Sicily, where it has become a significant fruit crop and medicinal plant [ 50]. There is evidence that this species was being used as a food source for humans at least 9,000 years before the present day [ 51], or as early as 12,000 years ago [ 52]. This would have been prior to the species being cultivated [ 53].

Italy, and Sicily in particular, represents an atypical example in the appreciation of O. ficus-indica. The exploitation of the cactus pear has a long history, with multiple uses documented since the 18th century. These include the use of the fruit as a filler in farming systems and as an emergency fodder. It was referred to as “bread for the poor” [ 54,55]. Furthermore, this taxon is important in other regions of the world, including Mexico, where prickly pear is extensively utilized as animal fodder [ 56].

In 1975, the establishment of modern plantations for the fruit industry marked a significant turning point. Cactus pear production is particularly well-suited to environments that are unsuitable for other crops. In Italy, cactus pear cultivation is concentrated in Sicily, accounting for 90% of the total production. Most of this cultivation occurs in the San Cono hills, in south-western Ethneo, and in the Belice valley [ 22,57].

The plant is commonly known as “fico d’India” or "ficodindia". Other local Italianized terms are also used, but dialectal names are generally adaptations of the main term.

Analysing the etymology of the name “Fucurinia”, it is assumed to come from India, but it comes from the so-called West Indies, i.e. the Americas [ 58]. Research conducted in various countries in southern Italy has shown various local names for the plant, as well as for the fruit: Ficarazzi, Fichilindi, Fichi a paletta, Ficundiani, Ficundiana, Ficundianu, Ficuniano, Fik de mori, Fik palet, Pittara, Sico tu trucu, Sicovindo, Stidda (Calabria); Fecurìnia, Ficundiano, Ficurenia, Ficurinie, Figurine (Campania); Zavat (Emilia-Romagna); Figu turco (Liguria); Agnus (Piemonte); Sicodiani (Puglia); Figu morisca (Sardinia); Ficudinia, Ficu d'innia, Ficudinnia, Ficurinnia (Sicily); Erba da callì (Toscana) [ 59].

Opuntia ficus-indica has been employed in a multitude of ways (Tab. 3). In the modern era, prickly pear cacti are cultivated primarily for their large sweet fruits (commonly referred to as “tunas”), which are available in local and commercial markets worldwide [ 60,61].

The primary use of prickly pears is as fresh fruit, although they are also employed in the production of cakes and preserves [ 62]. Furthermore, they constitute the principal ingredient in the preparation of typical Calabrian sweets: "i mustazzola" and "i sulicchiati". To prepare them, the thorns of the fruits are removed, the fruit is cut into pieces, boiled, and then added to the dough [ 63].

In Sicily, this taxon has become so well-established that it may be considered a typical specimen of the island's coastline. In Sicilian culture, two dishes are prepared using O. ficus-indica: "Mostarda di ficurinia" or "Pizichintì", which is a pastry made with the mucilage of this species boiled and mixed with a dough made from wheat, almonds, hazelnuts, cinnamon and sugar, and "Sucu pa pasta cu li ficurinnia", a sauce for pasta made with olive oil, garlic, and pulp of the seedless O. ficus-indica fruit [ 64].

It is a plant whith several uses in ethnobotany [ 65]. In the popular traditions of Sicily, O. ficus-indica is employed in human medicine. In ancient remedies, the mucilage of the prickly pear cactus is used to treat coughs and whooping coughs. A similar use has been documented in Sardinia [ 66], and Campania [ 67].

It is notable that the same plant can have different effects depending on the preparation method. For instance, an infusion [ 68,69,70,71], or a decoction of flowers [ 72,73,74,75,76], has been observed to have diuretic properties. Additionally, the mucilage and epidermis of the prickly pear fruit have been demonstrated to possess hemostatic properties [ 63,71,75,77]. Furthermore, a concentrated decoction of the root of the prickly pear plant with olive oil has been documented to have a curative effect on meteorism [ 68]. These findings have been corroborated by research conducted in other regions, including Brazil [ 78].

As documented by Ballero et al. [ 66], the mucilage of O. ficus-indica is employed directly in the treatment of dermatological problems, herpetic infections (herpes), and joint discomfort in the Fluminimaggiore region of southwestern Sardinia.

An important use is that reported by Leonti et al. [ 50], who indicate that prickly pear petals can be used to treat urological problems. Similarly, Pitrè [ 79] and Lentini et al. [ 80] cite the same part of the plant as a cure for kidney colic and kidney stones. Alternatively, a paste comprising desiccated cactus flowers was applied topically to relieve the symptoms of measles [ 69].

In southern Italy, O. ficus-indica is employed for a variety of purposes, including food [ 81], medicinal [ 82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94], but also ludic, agropastoral and magical. The fruits and cladodes are consumed raw as snacks in Calabria [ 1,95,96,97,98,99] and Campania [ 100,101,102]. The mucilage within the cladodes is utilized topically for dermatological problems in Calabria [ 103,104,105,106,107] and Campania [ 108,109].

It is notable that the same plant may exhibit different effects. For instance, the fruit of O. ficus-indica designated as "ficurinnia", has been observed to induce constipation when consumed with seeds. Conversely, when consumed without seeds, it has been demonstrated to function as a laxative [ 64].

The mucilaginous cladodes are used as a popular medicine treatment for gastritis, with the mucilage extracted and consumed orally [ 63].

Some applications are more localized and specific. For example, the use of O. ficus-indica cladodes rubbed on the hull of ships was observed on the Amalfi Coast (Campania) [ 67], with the apparent objective of increasing the speed of the vessels. Another application is as a fuel source for ovens or as a bird trap [ 77].

In 1978, Galt & Galt [ 69] conducted a more detailed study on the use of some wild plants on the islands of Pantelleria in Sicily. They focused on O. ficus-indica (ficus-dinnia), which, although cultivated by some, grows wild on the island. Cactus fruits are utilized as a dietary supplement for swine. The cactus pads were harvested and placed over the young tomato plants, providing protection from direct sunlight. In the past, the pads were also employed as makeshift plates for men, who consumed their midday meals in the fields.

In Sicily, cactus pads were employed as containers for the crystallization of “manna” or “manna di pala”, a vegetable product derived from the sap of certain Fraxinus species (F. ornus L. subsp. ornus and F. angustifolia Vahl subsp. angustifolia). It is a natural sweetener with mild laxative, emollient and cough-sedative properties [ 74].

A practice unique to the National Park of Cilento and Vallo di Diano is the utilization of the “skin” (epicarp) of the fruits of the prickly pear, which were previously denuded of thorns, dried in the sun, and preserved throughout the winter for frying with potatoes [ 110]. Another noteworthy application of cladodes is their incorporation into the soil surrounding vegetable crops, particularly cucumbers, to enhance soil fertility [ 110]. A comparable utilization was documented by Gentile et al. [ 111].

Malaria is an endemic disease in Italy, but it was eradicated by the mid-20th century. Tagarelli et al. [ 112] elucidated the prophylactic and therapeutic remedies employed by folk medicine to treat malaria in Calabria (southern Italy), where it was perceived as a condition of supernatural origin. Therefore, recourse was had to magical remedies believed to be linked to the disease. A cladode, known locally as a "paletta", was placed in proximity to fireplaces. It is hypothesized that the application of the plant in a dried state may result in the alleviation of symptoms such as fever and hepatosplenomegaly.

The O. ficus-indica plant is also employed in northern Italy. In Tuscany, it is utilized as an antitussive [ 113], a gastrointestinal tonic and astringent [ 114] and to treat diarrhea [ ]. In the Marche region, the laxative effect consuming the fruit at its maximum ripeness has been identified [ 115]. In the Liguria region, cladodes are employed for their astringent effect and to treat varicose veins by fractionating the plant mucilage [ 116,117].

The ethnobotanical studies conducted in North Africa have demonstrated the significance of O. ficus-indica as a vital source of sustenance, forage, and hydration for local communities and their livestock. Additionally, it serves as a valuable resource to produce cosmetics and traditional medicinal remedies. Despite the growing interest in this species in North Africa, the surveys conducted in Algeria are less comprehensive than those conducted in Morocco, and its traditional uses are limited to flowers and fruits. In rural Moroccan communities, all parts of the prickly pear are utilized, with one part often employed for a variety of medicinal purposes. The medicinal applications of O. ficus-indica are numerous and comparable in both Morocco and Algeria. However, the most frequently cited effects are its digestive and diuretic properties. In conclusion, the promising features for future studies are the promising nutritional and medicinal properties associated with the high adaptability of O. ficus-indica, even in the most extreme environments of North Africa.

In Italy, particularly in Calabria and Sicily, this taxon is fully exploited in all its parts. This includes the dietary use of fruits and cladodes, the medicinal use of the mucilage as a healer and disinfectant, and the preparation of infusions to treat kidney and digestive problems. This demonstrates the ubiquitous nature of this species and its potential for use in a wide range of applications.

The non-food uses of prickly pear offer excellent potential, given the bio-functional, medicinal, nutraceutical, and cosmetic properties that can be exploited. Several products have been the subject of recent patent applications [ 22,118].

A plethora of methodologies exists for the processing of O. ficus-indica fruits, cladodes, and seeds. The extensive range of products and by-products derived from cacti has the potential to confer significant benefits to a vast number of people, including those residing in arid and semi-arid regions across the globe. Cacti represent a significant source of bioactive compounds, making them an excellent candidate for nutraceutical preparations and functional foods. The scientific data have revealed a high content of certain chemical constituents in fruits, cladodes, seeds, and flowers of this cactus, which can add value to the products derived from this specis. Furthermore, some constituents have demonstrated potential as health-promoting substances. Further exploitation of the functional properties of cactus products in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries is a possibility, although further scientific research in these fields is required.

Despite the extensive knowledge gathered on O. ficus-indica, there remains a significant research gap regarding its lesser-known traditional uses and the potential of some of its biofunctional properties. This gap underscores the importance of further investigation to fully exploit and valorize this species, especially in underexplored regions, and to promote its potential applications across diverse sectors such as nutrition, medicine, and cosmetics.

Despite the considerable advances that have been made, there is still much to be discovered, presenting exciting prospects for future research and innovation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.M.M.; methodology, M.M.A., M.R.T. and C.M.M.; validation, C.M.M.; investigation, M.P., M.M.A., M.R.T. and C.M.M.; data curation, M.P., M.M.A., M.R.T. and C.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.P., M.M.A. and M.R.T.; writing—review and editing, M.P., M.M.A., M.R.T. and C.M.M.; visualization, M.P. and C.M.M.; supervision, C.M.M.; project administration, C.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.